Myths and Magic in The Book of the Dead | Egypt’s Eternal Guide

Spells 147 and 146 from the Papyrus of Ani. the book of the dead.
Spells 147 and 146 from the Papyrus of Ani. the book of the dead.

The ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead, more accurately titled in its original Egyptian name, transliterated as rw nw prt m hrw, is translated as Spells of Coming Forth by Day. The “day” in this title represents not only the realm of the living but also the principle of light—symbolizing triumph over darkness, oblivion, destruction, and death itself.

For the ancient Egyptians, the journey described in this sacred text was far more than a guide for survival in the afterlife; it was a profound spiritual journey. It involved traversing the cosmic landscape alongside the sun god Ra and passing through the domain of Osiris, the sun’s nighttime counterpart undergoing regeneration.

The Book of the Dead consisted of papyrus scrolls inscribed with funeral spells and placed near or within the wrappings of the mummy. Each copy was personalized; the deceased would select specific chapters or spells, likely influenced by personal needs or financial means, as these scrolls represented a significant investment. As a result, some versions of the book were brief, while others encompassed nearly the entire collection of sacred texts.

Papyrus of Ani, circa 1200 BCE (New Kingdom).
Papyrus of Ani, circa 1200 BCE (New Kingdom).

The term Book of the Dead was first coined in 1842 by German Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius. While studying a papyrus housed in the Egyptian Museum of Turin, he translated the text and referred to it as Todtenbuch, or “Book of the Dead” This name has persisted, though modern Egyptology often uses a dual reference to its original and modern titles: The Book of the Dead: Coming Forth by Day.

Egyptian Philology

The Book of the Dead | First Facsimiles

In 1805, four years after the French invasion of Egypt (1798-1801), the first facsimile of a copy of the Book of the Dead was published in Paris. This was the Papyrus Cadet, created for the Egyptian Padiamonnebnesouttaouy during the Ptolemaic period. Subsequently, this facsimile was included alongside others in the second volume of the monumental Description de l’Égypte. This work is the scientific report of the French expedition and was published between 1809 and 1828.

The Book of the Dead | Translation

In 1842, the first translation of the Book of the Dead into a contemporary language was published. This German edition was the work of the German Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius. His translation was based on the Papyrus of Iouef-Ankh, dated to the Ptolemaic period and preserved in the Egyptian Museum of Turin.

Lepsius divided this papyrus, one of the most complete of its kind, into 165 numbered chapters (one chapter for each of its different magical formulas). For practical reasons, this numbering, though arbitrary, remains in use today in the field of Egyptological philology.

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In 1881, the Dutchman Willem Pleyte published nine additional chapters (166 to 174), which were not retained in 1886 by the Swiss scholar Henri Edouard Naville. The latter introduced his own additional chapters (166 to 186), based on various papyri from the New Kingdom.

In 1898, the Englishman Sir E. A. Wallis Budge published his translation based on papyri dating back to the 18th Dynasty up to the Ptolemaic period. His edition was expanded with chapters 187 to 190, drawn from the Papyrus of Nu, which is preserved in the British Museum in London.

The mystical Spell 17, from the Papyrus of Ani. The vignette illustrates (left) Nu.
The mystical Spell 17, from the Papyrus of Ani. The vignette illustrates (left) Nu.

More recently, the work of the American Thomas George Allen was published in 1960 in an English translation, expanded with two additional chapters, 191 and 192.

Francophone Editions

As early as 1882, the Egyptologist Paul Pierret produced a “complete” translation of the Book of the Dead based on the Turin Papyrus and manuscripts housed at the Louvre, where he was a curator.

In 1967, the entire collection of 192 chapters was translated into French by Professor Paul Barguet. In 1996, the archaeologist and historian Guy Rachet translated and commented on the sixty-seven chapters of the Book of the Dead from the Papyrus of Ani, a copy held at the British Museum, for a broader French-speaking audience.

One may also note the complete French translation with transliteration by Claude Carrier, published in 2009.

Historical Overview for

Precursor Texts

Pyramid Texts

The Pyramid Text of King Unas.
The Pyramid Text of King Unas.

The Book of the Dead traces its origins to a long scriptural tradition dating back to the Old Kingdom, with the earliest funerary texts being the Pyramid Texts. The first pyramid in Egypt to feature texts was that of King Unas of the Fifth Dynasty (circa 2353 BCE). His successors from the Sixth Dynasty, such as Pharaohs Pepi I, Merenre I, and Pepi II, also inscribed these texts on the walls of their funerary complexes.

Initially, this practice was exclusively reserved for the king, but from the Sixth Dynasty onward, this privilege extended to royal wives. Many hieroglyphs in the Pyramid Texts depict living beings (humans, reptiles, birds). Those considered harmful or dangerous were depicted mutilated or restrained to prevent them from magically harming the king.

Developed or at least recomposed by the priests of Heliopolis, the capital of the sun god, the Pyramid Texts primarily focus on the elevation of the deceased sovereign to his mythical father, the sun god Ra. At this time, the afterlife was believed to take place in the sky, in the company of the sun as well as the stars, which were considered imperishable entities.

Later, during the New Kingdom, the Book of the Dead continued to situate the afterlife in the sky but also introduced the idea of an underworld.

Coffin Texts

Royal power lost its prestige when the Old Kingdom fell into the chaos of the First Intermediate Period. The Pyramid Texts ceased to be exclusive to members of the royal family and were adopted by local high-ranking notables.

During the Middle Kingdom, what Egyptologists refer to as the Coffin Texts emerged. In most cases, these texts were inscribed on the inner surfaces of coffins, which is the basis of their modern name.

Many passages from the Pyramid Texts were painted on the coffins of Middle Egypt notables, from the Ninth Dynasty of Heracleopolis to the Seventeenth Dynasty of Thebes. However, the corpus of the Coffin Texts was significantly enriched by chapters drawn from funerary traditions outside of the royal domain.

The god Osiris gained prominence, along with the mythical struggle between Seth and Horus.

Sarcophagus with a depiction of the Book of Two Ways.
Sarcophagus with a depiction of the Book of Two Ways.

At Deir el-Bersha, near the city of Hermopolis, a handful of coffins feature illustrations on their base representing a map of the afterlife, known as the Book of Two Ways. This cartographic depiction is connected to Formula 110 of the Book of the Dead, where the deceased plows fields surrounded by waterways.

The Coffin Texts, appearing on the funerary furniture of numerous individuals, contributed to what some Egyptologists call the “democratization” or “demotization” of the Pyramid Texts.

Formation of the Collection

Early Development of the Book of the Dead

The earliest developments of the Book of the Dead date back to the beginnings of the Second Intermediate Period. At that time, the main content of Spell 17 was established. As for Spell 64, both its short and long versions appeared on the now-lost sarcophagus of Queen Montuhotep of the Thirteenth Dynasty.

During the Eighteenth Dynasty, magical and funerary spells began to be written on rolls of papyrus, likely due to the lack of space on coffins, which had begun to take the shape of the mummy’s body.

Previously, during the Middle Kingdom, coffins resembled rectangular boxes, providing a larger surface for inscriptions.

Period of Use of the Book of the Dead

No single copy of the Book of the Dead contains all the spells known and cataloged by philologists of ancient Egyptian languages. The most complete copies are from later periods (Ptolemaic Dynasty), such as the Papyrus of Turin studied by Karl Richard Lepsius. This copy includes 165 of the 192 cataloged spells.

The Book of the Dead is a highly heterogeneous collection of texts that was compiled during the New Kingdom, specifically during the reigns of the early kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty, around 1550 BCE.

One of the oldest known copies is the Papyrus of Yuya, dating to the reign of Amenhotep III and now preserved in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

The latest known copy is the Papyrus of Pamonthes, preserved at the National Library of France in Paris, dated to the tenth year of the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero (63 CE). This corpus of funerary texts was thus in use in Egypt for over sixteen centuries.

Theban Recension

Egyptologists use the term “Theban Recension” to refer to copies of the Book of the Dead produced during the period from the Eighteenth to the Twenty-Fifth Dynasties, when Thebes was the capital of Egypt.

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The corpus appears to be a vast compilation of spells that follow one another without a clear apparent order. However, even at this time, scribes made attempts at logical organization, as some papyri from the Eighteenth Dynasty display a sequence of spells in a deliberate order.

In this recension, the illustrations are often of very high quality, but the text itself frequently suffers from errors due to the scribe’s negligence or lack of understanding of the language.

The oldest copies contain only a fraction of the 150 spells then in use, such as forty spells in the Papyrus of Yuya or thirty-three in the Papyrus of Kha, dated to the reign of Amenhotep III. Spells 1, 17, and 64 were among the most favored, owing to their general and introductory nature.

Saite recension of the Book of the Dead

The “Saite Recension” refers to copies of the Book of the Dead dating from the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty through to the years of Roman occupation. This period marked the decline of the city of Thebes, while the rulers of the city of Sais gained prominence.

During this time, the corpus of the Book of the Dead became codified. From one papyrus to another, the order of spells appears fixed and organized. However, not all copies of the Book of the Dead are identical, as variations have been observed. The sequence of spells and the placement of illustrations often followed local traditions.

In Memphis, the sequence is relatively regular, aligning with the progression identified by Karl Richard Lepsius (chapters 1 to 165). However, there are omissions and occasional rearrangements. Notably, the last three chapters (163, 164, 165) are systematically absent in copies from the early Ptolemaic period.

In Thebes, the arrangement of spells differs significantly. During the reign of the last Egyptian pharaohs (Thirtieth Dynasty), Chapter 64 appears between Chapters 30 and 31, Chapter 140 is placed between Chapters 136 and 137, Chapter 139 is omitted, and Chapter 162 follows Chapter 165 to close the Book of the Dead.

However, by the second century BCE, the Theban sequence began to align more closely with the Memphite sequence.

A tradition originating from the city of Akhmim has also been identified, characterized by the use of retrograde hieroglyphic writing. Additionally, it seems that Akhmim had multiple centers of text production (at least three), each with its own sub-traditions.

Textile Tombs: Linen and the Afterlife

The Widespread Use of the Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom

Unlike the Pyramid Texts, which were reserved for the sovereigns of the Old Kingdom, the Book of the Dead during the New Kingdom was intended for a broader audience. Its various chapters or spells were inscribed on a wide variety of materials. A considerable number of papyrus copies have been discovered in the tombs of middle-class individuals, such as priests, scribes, and soldiers.

Rolled up and sealed, these papyrus copies were placed on sarcophagi or stored in wooden boxes. Spells were also inscribed on tomb walls for kings and nobles, as well as on sarcophagi and funerary linens.

Amenhotep II is the only known king who had a papyrus containing these spells placed inside a statuette representing him.

Many prominent figures also acquired these texts on papyrus, such as Useramun, the vizier of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III.

The Greenfield Papyrus, at 37 meters in length, is the longest known example. It was created for Princess Nesitanebetisheru, the daughter of Pinedjem II, during the Twenty-First Dynasty and has been housed in the British Museum in London since 1910.

Among the most exquisite examples, the Papyrus of Ani (and his wife Thuthu), from the Eighteenth or Nineteenth Dynasty, stands out. Measuring 23.6 meters long and 39 centimeters wide, this papyrus is adorned with remarkable polychrome illustrations and has been in the British Museum since 1888.

The Louvre Museum in Paris holds around one hundred copies of the Book of the Dead from various periods. Notable examples include the Papyrus of Khonsumes from the New Kingdom and the Papyrus of Nebqed, prepared during the reign of Amenhotep III.

The Use of Linen Shrouds in the Book of the Dead

The spells of the Book of the Dead were also transcribed onto shrouds and the linen wrappings used in mummy preparation. These archaeological materials, less common than papyri, are often monochromatic and poorly preserved.

However, a few examples display quality comparable to that of some papyri. For reasons of religious purity, the only fabric used during mummification was linen. The decoration (text and images) on these linens appeared in the Theban region, likely during the reigns of the Seventeenth Dynasty. These included long shrouds that completely covered the deceased’s body.

The shroud wrapping the body of Thutmose III contained several spells from the Book of the Dead
The shroud wrapping the body of Thutmose III contained several spells from the Book of the Dead

The oldest example was found in a rudimentary tomb at Sheikh Abd el-Qurna and features a depiction of a funerary boat accompanied by Chapters 66, 67, and 170.

The shroud of King Thutmose III, originally five meters long, wrapped the royal body three times and included about twenty chapters from the Book of the Dead, along with the litanies of Ra and two spells from the Pyramid Texts.

In addition to large shrouds, starting in the Eighteenth Dynasty, excerpts from the Book of the Dead were inscribed on bandages or fabrics used to wrap royal mummies. This practice became more widespread during the Late Period (4th to 2nd century BCE).

In Paris, the Louvre Museum holds several examples of the Book of the Dead written on funerary linens. In Room 17 of the Sully Wing, linen bandages from the 3rd–2nd century BCE (Ptolemaic Egypt) are displayed, including those from the mummy of Aberuai and the mummy of Ounnefer.

Composition of the Book of the Dead

Text and Scripts

Primarily written on sheets of papyrus, the various copies of the Book of the Dead are generally composed in linear (or cursive) hieroglyphic script. This script simplifies the hieroglyphs while retaining their full figurative value.

The main body of the text is inscribed using a reed pen with black ink (and occasionally white ink) in vertical columns bordered by black lines.

The hieroglyphic inscriptions are especially meticulous during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties. Red ink is used for titles, the most important passages, or for writing the names of the gods.

Linear hieroglyphic script from the Book of the Dead of Nany, circa 1040–945 BCE (21st Dynasty). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Linear hieroglyphic script from the Book of the Dead of Nany, circa 1040–945 BCE (21st Dynasty). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

From the Twenty-First Dynasty onward, the most commonly used script became hieratic. In this style, the text is arranged in horizontal lines, and the different spells are separated by double lines.

Hieratic script introduces an additional level of simplification, allowing for faster execution. The characters deviate from their figurative representations and become arbitrary signs, akin to an alphabet.

Example of linear hieroglyphic script with alternating black and red ink (Egyptological Museum of Turin).
Example of linear hieroglyphic script with alternating black and red ink (Egyptological Museum of Turin).

During the Roman occupation, examples written in demotic script also appear. This cursive style evolved from hieratic and represents a further level of simplification in the characters.

Hieratic script from the Book of the Dead of King Pinedjem II, circa 990–969 BCE (21st Dynasty). British Museum, London.

Illustrations and Vignettes in the Book of the Dead

Long before the miniatures of medieval European Bibles, copies of the Book of the Dead featured a succession of illustrations. In fact, before Jean-Francois Champollion deciphered hieroglyphs, the scientific community often referred to this collection of magical spells as the Bible of the Ancient Egyptians.

These images, referred to as vignettes in Egyptology, are placed above the text; some even occupy the entire height of the papyrus. They depict the deceased facing the beings of the afterlife.

Notably, some copies lack any text and consist solely of a series of illustrations, such as the Papyrus of Nespakachuty (21st Dynasty), preserved in the Louvre Museum.

Scene of the weighing of the heart from the Papyrus of Senusret (18th Dynasty). Papyrus Museum in Vienna (Austria).
Scene of the weighing of the heart from the Papyrus of Senusret (18th Dynasty). Papyrus Museum in Vienna (Austria).

The most magnificent period for these illustrations was the New Kingdom. During the Eighteenth Dynasty, the drawings were executed in black ink, like the text.

Starting in the Nineteenth Dynasty, all colors appeared—white, red, green, ochre, black, and more. The illustrations in Books of the Dead from the “Saite Recension” continued to use color, but most examples exhibit simpler, more stylized drawings made with black ink and fine reed pens.

In later papyri, the use of color became rare, though red ink was occasionally used to depict elements such as the sun, the heart, and fire.

Vignette of Spell 30 from the Papyrus of Hunefer (19th Dynasty). British Museum.
Vignette of Spell 30 from the Papyrus of Hunefer (19th Dynasty). British Museum.

The most famous vignette portrays the judgment of the deceased—or the weighing of the heart—in the tribunal of Osiris (Spells 30 and 125). On a two-pan scale, the heart of the deceased, representing their conscience, is weighed against the feather of the goddess Ma’at, the goddess of truth and justice. Near the scale, a hybrid monster known as “Ammit” waits for the verdict. This creature has the head of a crocodile, the body and front legs of a lion, and the hindquarters and back legs of a hippopotamus.

Vignettes of Spells 162, 164, and 165 with stylized outlines. British Museum.
Vignettes of Spells 162, 164, and 165 with stylized outlines. British Museum.

Summary of the Collection

In his 1967 translation, Paul Barguet (a professor of Egyptian epigraphy at the École du Louvre) conducted an exegetical study of the 192 spells of the “Saite Recension” of the Book of the Dead and attempted to interpret the sequence of the spells. According to him, the text is divided into four major parts, initiated by Spells 1, 17, 64, and 130. This division is generally accepted by modern commentators on this magico-funerary collection.

The Journey to the Necropolis

The first part includes Spells 1 to 16. It describes the funeral procession’s journey to the necropolis, where the mummified deceased enters the afterlife. The mummy descends into the tomb and the Duat, as specified in the title of Spell 1A/B.

However, the newly arrived soul wishes to avoid the burdens of this underground world and commands the shabtis to perform these tasks in his place (Spells 5 and 6). The deceased also seeks protection from the terrifying serpent Apophis, a symbol of primordial chaos (Spell 7), and strives to gain the favor of the Wedjat, the Eye of Horus (Spell 8).

Papyrus of Ani: The mummy on a funerary sled arrives at the necropolis (Chapter 1).

Wishing to move freely, the deceased gains access to paths allowing entry to and exit from the West (Spells 11 to 13). His devotion to the lord of the universe is expressed in Spell 15, which consists of hymns and praises to Atum-Ra.

Papyrus of Ani: Rite of the Opening of the Mouth before the Tomb (continuation of Chapter 1).
Papyrus of Ani: Rite of the Opening of the Mouth before the Tomb (continuation of Chapter 1).

Chapter 16 is a vignette without text, yet it serves as a theological diagram synthesizing Egyptian beliefs about the solar orb’s journey. The illustration on the Papyrus of Ani shows the sun, greeted by baboons, rising from Osiris’s underworld. Osiris, under the protection of Isis and Nephthys, is depicted as an anthropomorphic figure composed of a Djed pillar and an Ankh symbol.

Papyrus of Ani; The Solar Renewal (Chapter 16).

Rebirth

In the second section, the deceased proclaims their rebirth and asserts their power over the elements of the universe as well as all potential enemies. This section begins with Spell 17, which identifies the deceased with the creator god Atum as he rises out of the primordial chaos.

However, this text is heavily laden with theological glosses derived from the traditions of Heracleopolis and Heliopolis.

Spells 18 to 20 focus on the birth of the solar disk and its victory over hostile forces. Spells 21 to 23 enable the deceased to benefit from the “opening of the mouth” ritual, allowing them to speak again and use their magical power (Spell 24).

The deceased regains their name (ren), and therefore their personality, as well as their heart, which must testify on their behalf before the divine judges (Spells 26 to 30).

Following this are spells that ensure the deceased’s victory over enemies, such as crocodiles, insects, or reptiles. Invincible, the deceased takes their seat on the throne of the Master of the Gods (Spell 47), enjoys abundant food, breathes fresh air, and quenches their thirst in the shade of the sycamore tree of Nut (Spells 54 to 63).

Transfiguration

In the third section, the “coming forth by day” becomes a reality. Spell 64, which is extremely difficult to translate and interpret, describes the transfiguration of the deceased. They are identified with Ra, the sun god, and Osiris, while still retaining their individual identity. The magic of this spell allows the ba soul to emerge into the light, as do Spells 65 and 66.

The tomb’s door opens (Spell 67), and like Osiris, the deceased rises and awakens to life once more (Spells 68 to 71). Emerging from the underworld, they travel to Heliopolis, the sacred city of Ra (Spells 72 to 75).

The transformation spells (Chapters 76 to 88) allow the deceased to take on the forms of the sun god during his daily journey. However, the deceased does not want to be separated from their ba soul and their shadow (shut), as these risk being destroyed (Spells 89 to 92).

Like Ra, the deceased moves from east to west (Spell 93) under the protection of Thoth (Spells 94 to 96). After demonstrating their magical knowledge to the ferryman of the celestial boat (Spells 98–99), the deceased boards it (Spells 100 to 102).

In the company of the celestial mother goddess Hathor (Spell 103) and other great gods (Spell 104), the deceased reunites with their ka (life force) and enjoys offerings of food (Spells 105 and 106).

The deceased becomes acquainted with and approaches the divine souls residing in various holy cities (Spells 107–116) and lives in paradisiacal fields (Spell 110). They then enter the underworld, traveling along the paths of Rosetau (Spells 117–129) to stand before the tribunal of Osiris (Spell 125). Found free of sin and declared pure by the judges, they are pronounced “just of voice.”

The Underworld

The fourth section of the Book of the Dead can be divided into two parts. The first includes Spells 130 to 140. Spells 130 to 136 are variants of a spell already found in the Book of Two Ways.

Here, the deceased identifies with Ra and journeys in the solar boat. Spells 137A and 137B provide the deceased with protection through four torches representing the four sons of Horus. Their light symbolizes the Eye of Horus, to which the deceased gives thanks (Spell 140).

The second part deals with the geography of the afterlife (Spells 141 to 162). The deceased knows the names of the gods (Spell 141), particularly those of Osiris.

In Spell 142, they list over one hundred epithets for this deity. Subsequently, the deceased demonstrates knowledge of the names of the gates, portals, and mounds leading to Osiris’s realm, along with their guardians (Spells 144 to 150).

Spells 151A and 151B protect the tomb and funerary mask, while Spells 154 to 162 enhance the magical power of various amulets placed on the mummy.

Additional Spells

Spells 163 to 192 are supplementary and difficult to classify, but they serve to honor the gods Ra, Amun, and Osiris. Spell 175 is particularly noteworthy, as it provides one of the rare mentions of the end of time in ancient Egyptian civilization.

Authors

Thoth, the Mythical Author

The god Thoth is the mythical author of the magical spells in the Book of the Dead.
The god Thoth is the mythical author of the magical spells in the Book of the Dead.

The god Thoth is considered the mythical author of the magical spells in the Book of the Dead. Each time a deceased individual recites a spell, they are theoretically its author, as they activate it at the moment of utterance.

However, the spells of the Book of the Dead were originally composed at some point. Egyptian priests identified the original author as a deity, not explicitly named but originating from Hermopolis, likely Thoth.

This attribution is rarely mentioned in the Book of the Dead, but it appears in the rubrics of Spells 30B, 64, 137A, and 148. The magical power of a spell is strengthened by its antiquity and certified by the name of Prince Djedefhor, a son of Khufu, who was traditionally regarded as a wise and learned man.

This spell was found at Hermopolis under the feet of the majesty of this august god, (written) on a block of Upper Egyptian quartzite, in writing by the god himself, during the reign of the majesty of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Mycerinus, justified, by Prince Djedefhor, who found it when he came to inspect the temples.
— Excerpt from Spell 30B, translated by Paul Barguet.

This text is transcribed as it was found written (by) Prince Djedefhor, who found it in a secret chest, in writing by the god himself, in the temple of Wenu, Mistress of Onu, while traveling to inspect the temples, cities, and mounds of the gods; what is recited is a secret of the Duat, a mystery of the Duat, a mystery of the realm of the dead.
— Excerpt from Spell 137A, translated by Paul Barguet.

To certify the magical power of Spell 167, found under the head of a mummy in an ancient tomb, scribes placed it under the patronage of two famous sages from the New Kingdom.

These were Khaemwaset, a son of Ramses II with a passion for ancient monuments and texts, and Amenhotep, son of Hapu. The latter was a scribe during the reign of Amenhotep III, later deified after his death, and credited with miraculous healings.

The Scribes

Variants

The numerous variants discovered by philologists indicate that, despite their divine origins, these magical texts were frequently modified by scribes. Reinterpretation of a spell was therefore possible. Three reasons can explain this:

  1. Opaque Texts: Some spells, such as 80 and 84, are difficult to understand. In these cases, scribes slightly altered the text to make it more accessible.
  2. Conciseness: Some spells, like Spell 77, were modified to shorten them.
  3. Reconstruction: Certain spells were reassembled by combining passages from various origins, as seen with Spells 83, 124, and 84 in some papyri.

These efforts were less about rewriting and more about reflecting on the original state of the spell. The goal was to refine the dialogue with the gods and enhance the spell’s effectiveness.

Statue of the Seated Scribe
Statue of the Seated Scribe

However, some papyri contain spells that have become incomprehensible. Even in this state, they retained their magical power in the afterlife.

Faulty Versions

Many copies of the Book of the Dead contain spelling errors or mistakes caused by the scribe’s lack of familiarity with the text. When a scribe copies a text, they may either work from a model or write from dictation.

During transcription, it is common for scribes to make errors, such as using the wrong hieroglyphic sign, skipping a passage, or duplicating a section. However, as the work progresses, the scribe typically revises and corrects their work, with varying degrees of diligence depending on the individual.

If a sign or word is omitted, the scribe may insert the missing part between two lines of writing. If the omitted section is too long, the omission is indicated with a specific hieroglyph, and the correction is written at the bottom of the papyrus. In some cases, incorrect passages are crossed out and replaced, or not replaced at all.

The variations in copies can often be traced back to the scribe’s distraction, low level of education, poor understanding of the content of the Book of the Dead, or incorrect reinterpretations leading to misinterpretations.

Magic in the Book of the Dead

General Principle

Magic is a fundamental element in all Egyptian funerary texts and permeates all the spells in the Book of the Dead. In the Pyramid Texts, the ritualist priest plays a central role. Through the priest’s recitations, the kings of the Old Kingdom could ascend to the afterlife.

In the Book of the Dead, the role of ritualists from the world of the living is minimal. Instead, the magical power is transferred to the deceased in the afterlife. The spells in the Book of the Dead are written as though they are the deceased’s own creations.

By the New Kingdom, it is no longer the priests’ rituals that magically protect the deceased, but rather the deceased who protects themselves using their own ritual. The deceased becomes a magician acting on their own behalf. Their words and speech hold the power of persuasion and creation.

When the deceased recites a spell, they activate a vast network of analogies, with elements rooted in the mythology and theology of one or more deities from the Egyptian pantheon.

Persuasive Magic

During their journey through the underworld, the deceased encounters numerous deities whose favor they must win. Armed with their copy of the Book of the Dead, the deceased always knows whom they are meeting and what they must say to wield magical power over them.

Creative Magic

In certain chapters (e.g., 77, 81A, 83, 85, 87, or 88), the deceased is not addressing anyone. This absence of an audience is because the deceased finds themselves in a primordial context, akin to the creator god before the world was organized. In these cases, the deceased must speak these words not to communicate with existing deities, but to create the universe through the magic of speech.

Funerary Mythology

In the collection of the Book of the Dead, the Egyptians combined two representations of death. It is depicted either as an enemy to be juridically defeated or as a benevolent mother. These two aspects do not conflict but converge into a unified funerary theme: the regeneration of the deceased in the afterlife.

Seth or Death as an Enemy

The Osirian Myth

In the first representation, death (the cessation of life) is differentiated from the deceased (the individual who ceases to live). This distinction is part of the Osirian myth.

The deceased is Osiris, murdered by Seth, who represents death. Here, death is not natural; it is an act of violence and injustice contrary to Ma’at (order and truth), established by the primordial and creator god Seth (death) is therefore in the wrong, making judicial action and a trial against him both possible and necessary. The goal is to restore Osiris (the deceased) to his full rights.

Isis, Osiris’s sister-wife, mourns the deceased and reassembles his dismembered body. Through mummification, the corpse is preserved. From this revivified body, Isis conceives Horus, the son and heir of the victim.

During the trial, Seth is defeated, and Osiris is proclaimed just. Osiris begins his reign in the underworld while his son Horus succeeds him among the living. In this myth, Isis represents reanimation and the continuity of life, while Horus symbolizes the living individual—the persistence of life on earth as instituted by the creator god.

Osiris ultimately emerges victorious in his battle against Seth because his son Horus continued the fight. Despite his victory, Osiris remains a dead king, existing apart from the world of the living. His reign is in the Duat, a secret place where his mummified body is safe from further attacks by hostile forces.

The Judgment of the Dead

In Spell 125 of the Book of the Dead, the theme of death as a guilty party brought to trial is slightly modified. The foundation remains the same: the deceased emerges victorious from the tribunal, becoming a glorious Akh. They remain dead but retain their identity and a social status equivalent to their earthly life within Osiris’s realm.

However, in this version, the deceased is no longer a plaintiff but an accused who must prove their innocence. Their heart is placed on a scale, with Ma’at as the counterweight. Additionally, they must recite a long list of sins they claim not to have committed. Those who fail this test are devoured by the monster Ammit.

The deceased is aided in this trial by the gods Horus, Anubis, and Thoth. In the New Kingdom, death as an enemy is represented by the guilt and sin of the deceased.

Scene from the Papyrus of Hunefer depicting the weighing of the heart during the judgment of the soul.

Nut or Death as a Mother-Goddess

The Goddess of the Sycamore

In the Middle Kingdom, coffins and sarcophagi became adorned with spells in which Nut, the goddess of the sky, declares herself the mother of the deceased. She is identified with the sarcophagus, the necropolis of the Beautiful West, and the tomb of the deceased—essentially all the elements that welcome the deceased.

This second representation of death continues in the Book of the Dead. Nut, the sky goddess, always promises the deceased water, shade, and nourishment. One of her forms is the tree of life, the sycamore.

Spell for living on the breeze and having water in abundance in the realm of the dead. Words spoken by (Name of the deceased):

O! this sycamore of Nut, give me the water and the breeze that are within you! I am the one who occupies this place at the center of Hermopolis. (…) If he lives, I live; if he breathes the breeze, I breathe the breeze.
— Excerpt from Chapter 59, translation by Paul Barguet.

The Sun, Son of the Mother-Goddess

During his daily journey across the sky, Ra, the sun god aboard his solar barque, is born in the morning on the eastern horizon and dies in the evening as he sinks into the western mountains of Manu.

In this mythical vision of the solar cycle, Nut, the sky goddess, gives birth to the sun in the morning and swallows him in the evening to receive him into her womb.

This perception of death differs from the Osirian myth, as here death is shown as a natural cycle. The solar journey, as an eternal cycle of death and rebirth, serves as a model for deceased Egyptians.

Each evening signifies a return to Nun, the primordial ocean, or to the Duat, the nocturnal realm of darkness. This return to the origin is a twelve-hour journey where death transforms into morning rebirth.

By accompanying the solar god, the deceased unites with the celestial mother and may aspire to eternal life. However, only those who lived according to Ma’at (truth and justice) are deemed worthy of boarding Ra’s solar barque.

In this way, this second representation of death aligns with the Osirian myth, as only those proclaimed “just of voice” in Osiris’s tribunal are deemed worthy of this honor.

The Final Scene of the Papyrus of Ani

The final scene of the Papyrus of Ani combines Osirian and solar mythologies. Ani and his wife, Thuthu, offer tributes to Osiris-Sokar (Spell 185) and Hathor, goddess of the sky and protector of the sun god (Spell 186).

The maternal aspect of the goddess is evoked through the depiction of Taweret, the protective goddess of pregnant women and young children. For the Egyptians, the female hippopotamus symbolized the ideal mother, ready to defend her offspring from crocodile attacks.

The celestial aspect of the goddess is represented by the head of the cow Mehet-Weret, whose name means “The Great Flood”, The body of this primordial cow is identified with the sky-ocean of creation.

Here, Taweret and Mehet-Weret are clearly two aspects of the goddess Hathor, as both bear Hathor’s symbol: the solar disk flanked by two horns. Mehet-Weret appears emerging from the Theban mountain, the burial place of the deceased.

Hathor is also the “Lady of the West” (the necropolis), represented here by a white tomb topped with a small pyramid. While the tomb serves as a resting place for the mummy, it is also a site of worship where the deceased’s memory and vitality are maintained through funerary offerings.

The regeneration of the deceased is symbolized by the marshlands represented by the field of lotus flowers. The lotus is one of the forms the Ba-soul of the deceased can take, as described in Spell 81A/B, allowing it to emerge into the light from the tomb.

Solar Renewal

In the New Kingdom, the regeneration of the sun is described in detail primarily in the depictions within royal tombs, such as in the Book of Amduat. As these tombs were sealed and isolated in the desert, the literature about the sun’s nocturnal journey remained a secret reserved for the sovereign.

During the night, the sun god Ra travels through the underworld, awakening the deceased with the light he provides. He distributes the offerings of funerary provisions, judges sinners, and battles the malevolent serpent Apophis.

When Ra unites with the mummified body of Osiris, he draws from it a revitalizing force that enables his rebirth in the world of the living at dawn.

While the Book of the Dead frequently alludes to this journey, such references are scattered throughout the text:

The barque of the night is joyful, the barque of the day is jubilant when they come to you (…) your crew is content, for the uraeus has overthrown your enemies, and Apophis’s advance has been stopped for you. You are perfect as Ra every day. Your mother Nut embraces you as you beautifully set, with a radiant heart, into the horizon of Manu. The venerable dead are jubilant as you shine there for the great god, Osiris, ruler of eternity.

Having risen, you peacefully set in the retreat of the western horizon. (…) Great is your love for the inhabitants of the Duat; you shine upon those there and upon all that dwells in the horizon. (…) O gods of the West, (…) seize your weapons, overthrow Ra’s enemy, drive away the Dark One from Osiris.
— Excerpts from Chapter 15, translated by Paul Barguet.

Regenerative Union

In the Book of the Dead, the greatest funerary deities are Ra, the sun god, and Osiris, the god of regeneration. Through funerary rites, the deceased becomes an Osiris. Consequently, in the Book of the Dead, the name of the god is attached to that of the deceased (e.g., “Osiris-Neferhotep”).

The sun god unites daily with his mother, the celestial goddess, who receives him into her womb and gives birth to him. In the Osirian myth, Nut, the sky goddess, is the mother of Osiris. While the sun is distant and inaccessible in the sky, Osiris is the hidden and secret god of the underworld.

The two gods represent two facets (diurnal and nocturnal) of a single entity: Osiris is the body, and the sun is the soul. Osiris is viewed as the nocturnal and hidden sun. The union of these two deities in Osiris’s tomb is the source of all regeneration.

The tomb of the deceased, through the magical spells of the Book of the Dead, becomes assimilated with that of Osiris, serving as the place where regeneration occurs:

O Ra, who rests in Osiris in all glorious manifestations, the blessed ones, the gods of the West; unique image, mystery of the Duat, holy soul in the West, Unnefer, who will exist forever and ever.
— Excerpt from Chapter 180.

I have given the sweet breeze of the north wind to Osiris Unnefer, as when he came forth from the womb of the one who bore him. I cause Ra to rest in Osiris, and Osiris to rest in Ra; I cause Ra to enter the mysterious cavern to revive the heart of the one whose heart no longer beats, the holy soul in the West.
— Excerpt from Chapter 182, where the deceased assimilates themselves with the god Thoth, translated by Paul Barguet.

Emerging into the Day

Elements of Personality

The Egyptian conceptions of death, the soul, and eternal life are complex, shaped by multiple interwoven local and temporal traditions. This complexity is evident in the spells of the Book of the Dead.

For the ancient Egyptians, death signified the disintegration of existence, as the various components of the personality were believed to dissociate and lead independent existences. Funerary rites aimed to establish new relationships between these different components of being.

Physical Components

Mummification served to preserve the physical elements of a person. Despite death, the body remained the foundation of existence. Many spells in the Book of the Dead focus on this preservation, likely recited during the mummification process.

The Egyptians used specific terms for the body: djet (body), khat (corpse), and sah (mummy). The mummy was protected by several amulets, a practice mentioned in the Book of the Dead, particularly in Spells 154 to 160, which reference the Djed pillar, the Tit knot, and the Wadj column.

The heart, considered the seat of consciousness and memory, was especially protected by specific spells. The heart-protecting amulet, often in the shape of a scarab, symbolized Khepri, the god of solar transformations.

This amulet was deemed vital for the deceased, as reflected in the numerous spells dedicated to it (Chapters 26 to 30B). Texts describe the scarab amulet as being crafted from various stones, including lapis lazuli, feldspar, carnelian, or nephrite.

Psychic Components

In the Book of the Dead, the psychic elements ba and ka are prominent, both resembling modern conceptions of the soul. Other components of the personality include the shadow (shut) and the name (ren).

  • The Ba: This aspect of the personality is the most mobile, allowing the deceased to emerge into the day and leave the tomb. It is depicted as a bird with a human head. Maintaining the connection between the ba and the mummy was crucial for preserving the unity of the person.
  • The Ka: This is the principle of life, which resides in the tomb alongside the body. It sustains itself through offerings of food, water, and incense. If priests failed to provide these offerings, spells from the Book of the Dead ensured the ka continued to be nourished.
  • The Ren: The name of the person, representing an essential part of their individuality, was inscribed in multiple locations and protected by specific spells to ensure its survival.

If all these aspects of the personality were preserved and satisfied, the deceased could live as an akh, a blessed spirit, in the company of the gods. Some spells from the Coffin Texts describe akh as a component of the personality. However, an Egyptian did not “possess” an akh; they became an akh—a glorified spirit. Thus, it was more of a post-mortem status than a personality element.

The Egyptians did not draw a strict line between the concepts of body and soul. Instead, they differentiated between the “physical self” (body, organs, ba, and shadow) and the “social self” (ka, name, and social status tied to the mummy). These two spheres intersected at the heart, which formed the core of both.

The Ka (Life Force)

Sculptural representation of the Ba, arms raised to receive water and/or food from the goddess Nut of the sycamore (Hildesheim Museum, Germany).
Sculptural representation of the Ba, arms raised to receive water and/or food from the goddess Nut of the sycamore (Hildesheim Museum, Germany).

The Ka, along with the Ba, are aspects of personality that are difficult to define. Modern interpretations are numerous and widely debated. This complexity arises because Egyptian texts did not clearly delineate the roles of these two components.

Unlike the soul (Ba), freedom of movement plays no role for the Ka. Additionally, the Ka is not directly associated with the corpse or the mummy. Instead, it is linked to dignity, honor, and social status. The Ka is considered a familial spirit or genius, passed from father to son.

O Osiris (Pharaoh)! Horus has protected you; he has acted for his Ka, which you are, so that you may be satisfied in your name of ‘Satisfied Ka.’
— End of Chapter 356 of the Pyramid Texts, quoted by Jan Assmann.

The Ka is hieroglyphically represented as a gesture of outstretched arms reaching forward to embrace someone, symbolizing the transfer of the Ka through such an embrace.

In Chapter 105 of the Book of the Dead, the Ka and the “self” of the deceased form a unity, with the Ka identified as the life force of the deceased. It is also associated with consciousness. The vignette for this chapter depicts the deceased offering a libation of water and incense to their Ka. The aim is for the deceased to ensure their Ka remains close to them.

Spell to make favorable the Ka of (name of the deceased) in the realm of the dead. Words spoken by (N): Hail to you, my Ka, my life force! Here I have come to you, having arisen, being vigorous, animated, and powerful. I have brought you natron and terebinth resin to purify you with them, to cleanse your sweat with them. The evil words I may have spoken, the vile sins I may have committed—let these not be returned to me, for I am that Wadj amulet tied around the neck of Ra, giving greenery to the inhabitants of the horizon. I am flourishing, and my Ka is flourishing like them. The sustenance of my Ka is as theirs.

O Balancer of the Scales, let truth (Ma’at) rise to the nose of Ra on this day! Do not allow my head to be taken from me, for I truly possess an eye that sees, an ear that hears. I am not a sacrificial bull, nor shall I be made a funerary offering for those above. Allow me to pass near you, for I am pure. Osiris has been declared just against his enemies.
— Chapter 105, translation by Paul Barguet.

Relationship Between the Soul (Ba) and the Mummy

Separation: Emerging into the Day

The emergence of the Ba and shadow of Neferoubenef; vignette from Chapter 92. Louvre Museum.
The emergence of the Ba and shadow of Neferoubenef; vignette from Chapter 92. Louvre Museum.

The funerary ritual aims to separate the Ba soul from the mummy. In the Book of the Dead, the afterlife is divided into the sky and the underworld. The corpse is destined for the earth and remains in its tomb, while the Duat represents the underworld where bodies remain hidden. The Ba, however, is not meant to stay with the mummy. Represented as a bird with a human head, the Ba’s place is in the sky.

This distinction is evident in complete copies of the Saite recension, starting with the opening spells of the book. Chapter 1B is titled “Spell to lower the mummy into the Duat on the day of burial.” However, much more emphasis is placed on the destiny of the Ba. Chapters 2 and 3 are “Spells to emerge into the day; to live after death.” Chapter 169 encapsulates this dichotomy while highlighting the importance of the heart:

Your heart has been returned to you from your mother, the visceral heart of your body; your Ba soul has been placed in the sky, your body in the earth.

This theme underlies the original name of the Book of the Dead. The ancient Egyptians considered this collection of spells as the Book of Emerging into the Day. While the primary purpose of these texts is to separate the Ba soul from the mummy, the latter must not be permanently abandoned.

Revitalizing Reunion

The reunion of the Ba soul with the body is also a major objective of the Book of the Dead. The Ba must be free from all constraints. Its return to the tomb is encouraged, as reflected in Chapter 12: “Another spell for entering and exiting the realm of the dead” and Chapter 13: “Spell for entering and exiting the West.”

The Ba soul flies over the mummy to revitalize it (Papyrus of Ani).
The Ba soul flies over the mummy to revitalize it (Papyrus of Ani).

Chapter 89 is entirely devoted to the theme of the reunion between the Ba and the body. The illustrative vignette shows the Ba bird hovering above the heart of the mummy, which lies on a funerary bed.

In the tomb of the vizier Paser, the Ba presents hieroglyphic signs of life and breath to the mummy. This reunion is thus the guarantee of life for the individual in the afterlife. When the word “soul” appears in the translation below, it should be understood as referring to the Ba soul:

Spell to allow the soul to reunite with its body in the realm of the dead. (…), great god, let my soul come to me, wherever it may be! If there is a delay in bringing my soul back to me, wherever it may be, then you will find the Eye of Horus raised against you, as such. (…) O gods who pull the barque of the Master of Millions of Years, who bring the sky to the Duat, who repel the lower sky, who bring souls closer to the mummies, may your hands grasp your ropes (…) and may this soul of (the deceased I am) rise to the gods beneath your seats, from the eastern horizon of the sky, to return to the place it was yesterday, in peace, in peace, to the West!

May it see its body, may it rest upon its mummy! (Thus) it will not perish, it will not be destroyed, ever.

— Excerpts from Chapter 89, translated by Paul Barguet.

Communication Between the Living and the Dead

Tomb

An Egyptian tomb, whether grand or modest, consists of two equally important elements. The first is hidden and inaccessible to humans: the burial chamber that houses and protects the mummy. The second is visible and accessible to the living. This component preserves the memory of the deceased (name, titles, and biographies) and serves as a place of prayer and worship where libations and offerings are made. It is also the location where the dead meet the living.

False door of a tomb from the First Intermediate Period.
False door of a tomb from the First Intermediate Period.

To illustrate this duality in an Egyptian funerary complex, the example of King Ramses III can be taken. The hidden part is represented by his tomb KV11 in the Valley of the Kings, while the visible part is his temple of millions of years at Medinet Habu. Funerary rituals do not end with the placement of the mummy in the tomb; the cult of offerings to the deceased continues thereafter. Regarding the “life” of the deceased in the New Kingdom, the concept of “emerging into the day” takes precedence over all other ideas.

False Door

During the Old Kingdom, the theme of emerging into the day does not appear in the Pyramid Texts. The king ascends to the sky, while his subjects go to their tombs located in the “Beautiful West” (the necropolis). In the Middle Kingdom, the realm of the dead is situated in the underworld. From this point, various notions related to the mobility of the dead coexist, and the theme of emerging into the day first arises and then becomes dominant, as the dead wish to visit their still-living family members.

Egyptian funerary culture, from the start of the Old Kingdom, is characterized by the idea that the dead can communicate with the living and vice versa. Throughout the duration of ancient Egyptian civilization, the false door (or false door stela) is a key architectural element of every funerary complex. It is through this false door that the deceased, via their Ba or Ka, can exit the realm of the dead to partake in the food offerings left by the living.

By the Twelfth Dynasty, the deceased began expressing a desire to “emerge into the day at every festival.” From then on, this theme became more prominent, and the wishes diversified: “to emerge into the day at every festival of Osiris,” “to emerge into the day to see Amun at his beautiful Festival of the Valley,” and so on.

What the deceased ultimately wished for was to enjoy a festive occasion where abundant food was distributed through offerings.

By the Nineteenth Dynasty, the concept of emerging into the day was associated with the ability to transform: “to emerge into the day as a living Ba to see the solar disk at its rising”.

Transformation Spells

Modality

In 1845, Edgar Allan Poe was the first modern writer to imagine a dialogue with a mummy in his story Some Words with a Mummy. The conversation takes place during a process of unwrapping the mummy and after awakening the deceased with electric shocks. Later, 20th-century imagery and cinema popularized the idea that an Egyptian mummy, disturbed in its sleep, could emerge from its sarcophagus to seek revenge on its enemies, as in the 1999 film The Mummy. This modern perspective, however, is far removed from the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians.

Transformation

The transformation spells bear similar titles, such as Spell to transform into a divine falcon or Spell to transform into a lotus. The Egyptian terms used are the verb kheper and the noun kheperu. Egyptologists translate kheper as “to come into existence,” “to exist,” “to manifest,” “to transform,” or “to take on an aspect,” while kheperu is translated as “form,” “manifestation,” or “aspect.”

The appearance of the Egyptian deceased in the world of the living did not involve their mummified body but occurred through their Ba soul. This aspect of the personality encapsulated a power that enabled the deceased to assume different forms. The transformations of the Ba allowed the dead to escape the immobility of the body wrapped in bandages.

These transformations should not be understood as the Ba soul entering the body of an animal or as the transformation of a human body into an animal body. Instead, it is an assimilation to a divine type, symbolically represented by the animal, for the purpose of gaining magical benefits or warding off danger.

These transformations are also mentioned on funerary stelae or the walls of tombs:

You will manifest as a living Ba (…), the Ba will manifest as a heron-Bennu and as a swallow, as a falcon, as this heron-Khenty, and as whatever you desire.
— Tomb of Pahery (18th Dynasty), translation by Fr. Servajean.

Catalog of Transformations

Transformation spells No. 87, 88, and 82 (from left to right) from the Papyrus of Ani.
Transformation spells No. 87, 88, and 82 (from left to right) from the Papyrus of Ani.
  • Spell 76: For any transformation the deceased desires.
  • Spell 77: To transform into a golden falcon, illustrated by a golden falcon holding a flail.
  • Spell 78: To transform into a divine falcon, illustrated by a falcon in natural colors.
  • Spell 79: To exist in the Ennead and transform into the chief of the divine tribunal, illustrated by the deceased praying before three seated gods.
  • Spell 80: To transform into a god and illuminate the darkness, illustrated by a standing mummy or a god with a solar disk on its head.
  • Spells 81A and B: To transform into a lotus, illustrated by a lotus emerging from a basin, with a human head appearing from the flower.
  • Spell 82: To transform into Ptah, illustrated by the god himself.
  • Spell 83: To transform into a Bennu heron, illustrated by a heron standing or perched.
  • Spell 84: To transform into a Chenty heron, illustrated by another heron, very similar to the previous one. The two birds are sometimes grouped in a single vignette.
  • Spell 85: To transform into the Ba-soul of Atum, illustrated by a ram or a Ba-bird.
  • Spell 86: To transform into a swallow, illustrated by the bird standing on a mound or chapel.
  • Spell 87: To transform into the serpent Sata, illustrated by a serpent (possibly a cobra) with two human legs.
  • Spell 88: To transform into Sobek, illustrated by a mummified crocodile lying on a chapel.

Order of Spells

By the Middle Kingdom, the deceased sought the ability to transform. Numerous spells in the Coffin Texts address this theme, with nearly one hundred out of a total of one thousand focusing on transformations.

In this earlier collection, the deceased could choose among approximately sixty-two transformations, including forms such as a vulture, bird-catcher, goose, ibis, falcon, wind, Ptah, Horus, the morning star, and more.

During the New Kingdom, the scribes of the Book of the Dead reduced the number of transformations to about a dozen (Spells 76 to 88). In copies of the “Theban Recension,” the order of these spells was initially disorganized. For example, in the Papyrus of Ani (19th Dynasty), the order of succession is: 86-77-78-87-88-82-85-83-84-81A-80.

By the Late Period, in copies of the “Saite Recension,” the order of the transformation spells became fixed and nearly immutable. During this period (from the 25th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Dynasty), priests began associating the twelve transformations of the deceased with the daily journey of the god Ra and his twelve aspects during the hours of the day.

However, the theological reflection of the scribes continued. These twelve spells were occasionally grouped differently (e.g., 77-86-87 or 85-82-77-86), with some of them inserted into spells not part of the transformation group.

Geography of the Afterlife

Tomb

Vignette from Spell 151 of the Papyrus of Ani.
Vignette from Spell 151 of the Papyrus of Ani.

The tomb where the mummy of the deceased rests is magically protected by Spell 151A of the Book of the Dead. This spell includes a large illustration occupying the entire height of the papyrus, depicting the ideal tomb—one that is best protected by divine forces. The power of this image is enhanced by its magical inscriptions, which convey the words of several deities.

At the center of the illustration, the mummy is shown lying on a lion-shaped funerary bed. In some versions, the Ba-soul of the deceased is depicted nearby. The body is protected by Anubis, the god of mummification, whose hand touches the heart, ensuring the deceased’s enduring existence.

Additional protection is provided by the two sisters of Osiris: Isis guarantees the deceased can breathe again, while Nephthys ensures the preservation of the head.

The illustration’s borders represent the four walls of the tomb, each protected by an amulet: two flaming torches, a Djed pillar, and a figurine of a reclining Anubis. Spell 137A is particularly devoted to this theme, describing a ritual for installing these amulets into niches carved into the walls.

The vignette also features depictions and speeches of the four sons of Horus—Imsety, Hapi, Duamutef, and Qebehsenuef—who pledge to protect the deceased just as they protect Osiris.

The Ba-soul of the deceased appears twice in the illustration, oriented toward both the east and the west in adoration. It calls upon the ushabti figurines, as described in Spell 6, to perform labor in the afterlife on its behalf.

Portals

Osiris, whose body was reassembled by Isis, is known as “the one with a failing heart.” This vulnerability must be concealed and kept secret. The divine body is protected from hostile forces, represented by Seth, by an army of benevolent demons. In the Duat, portals symbolize protective secrecy, barring harmful intrusions into Osiris’s tomb.

Spell 144 lists seven portals, providing the name of each and the names of the guardian gods serving Osiris. In Chapter 145, this list expands to twenty-one portals. In Chapter 146, the deceased must pass through nineteen portals, and in Chapter 147, seven doors, before reaching Osiris.

A similar symbolism is found in Spells 149 and 150, which describe hills inhabited by protective deities. In these cases, the deceased appeals to these deities for support to avoid being turned away.

Spells 147 and 146 from the Papyrus of Ani.
Spells 147 and 146 from the Papyrus of Ani.

The Ferry and Its Ferryman

Model of an Egyptian boat (Middle Kingdom) displayed at the Louvre Museum.
Model of an Egyptian boat (Middle Kingdom) displayed at the Louvre Museum.

Spell 99 of the Book of the Dead is one of the oldest in the collection. It is already inscribed on the walls of the pyramid of Qakare-Ibi, an obscure ruler of the 7th Dynasty (historian Manetho places this king’s reign at the end of the 6th Dynasty). The spell reappears in the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom (Chapter 397).

This lengthy text is a dialogue in which the deceased must demonstrate certain magical knowledge. The deceased arrives at a body of water and must cross it by boarding the barque named “Construction of Khnum of the Heliopolitan Nome.”

First, they address the ferryman named Mahaef (“He Who Looks Behind”) to awaken “Aqen,” the guardian of the vessel. Once Aqen is awakened, the interrogation continues. The deceased must prove to these two deities that they know their destination and possess knowledge of the secrets of the afterlife.

In another version of Spell 99, the components of the barque (mooring stake, prow rope, mast, halyard, sail, etc.) speak directly to the deceased. They demand to know if the deceased is familiar with their names, as each part of the boat is associated with a deity (Ma’at, Seth, Horus, etc.).

The final rubric of the spell states that the ferry’s destination is the “Field of Rushes.” There, the deceased is provided with sustenance and granted ownership of a field of wheat and barley spanning one aroura (approximately 2,700 square meters).

Paradisiacal Fields

Description

Illustration from Spell 110 of the Papyrus of Ani.
Illustration from Spell 110 of the Papyrus of Ani.

Spell 110 of the Book of the Dead describes a paradisiacal place inspired by the geography of the Nile Delta. This location has several names: the Double Field of Reeds, the Field of Rushes, or the Field of Offerings (Hotep).

This depiction was already well-established in the Coffin Texts. Depending on the version of the Book of the Dead, the written description varies in detail. For this spell, the most important feature for the deceased is the large illustrative vignette included in their copy of the book.

This illustration takes up the entire height of the papyrus sheet and represents a map of a world where the deceased worships deities and participates in agricultural activities such as plowing, sowing, and harvesting.

The geography resembles the Egyptian countryside, with strips of fertile fields surrounded by irrigation canals. Travel between cities is by boat, and the deceased is depicted paddling along the canals of Hotep.

Other boats are moored at docks or carry the guardian deities of the area. The text of the spell indicates that the deceased desires bread, beer, wine, and cakes for their Ka, offered by the gods on altars. As a god of abundance, the deceased also partakes in the distribution of these provisions.

The deceased wishes to continue their earthly activities (eating, drinking, sleeping, and lovemaking) in this realm and enjoy an eternal existence free from worries or reproach. The names of the cities visited by the deceased are listed: the Great City, Ouakh (Overflowing), Nefret-Hotep (Beautiful Peace), Djefat (City of Provisions), Qenqenet, Hesat (City of Milk), and Semat (City of Reunion).

Symbolism

While the translation and interpretation of the Book of the Dead provide insights into ancient Egyptian beliefs, analyzing the imagery and its symbolism is equally crucial. The deceased is often depicted participating in agricultural work. However, it is unlikely that members of the ruling class (religious elites, royal officials, and scribes) who owned copies of the Book of the Dead actively engaged in these laborious and socially undervalued tasks during their lifetimes.

The illustration in Spell 110 carries a hidden symbolic meaning connected to the Osirian cult. While Osiris is the god of the dead, he is also the god of fertility. His death is associated with the cycle of nature, specifically the seasonal rhythms of agricultural work.

In the Middle Kingdom, some sarcophagi mention the possibility of the Ba-soul transforming into Nepri, the god of wheat (Spells 299 and 330), or even directly into wheat (Spell 269). The deceased is described as “this sheaf of life that emerges from Osiris (…) that sustains humanity (…), that nourishes the living, and strengthens the bodies of the living.

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