- Discovery of Pyramid Texts
- Remains of the Pyramid of Unas
- Limited Presence of Pyramid Texts
- Expansion Beyond Royal Use
- Significant Monuments Featuring Pyramid Texts
- The Role of Pyramid Texts in Royal Funerary Contexts
- Inscription Methods and Corrections in Unas' Pyramid
- Interpretation of Text Layouts
- The Decorative Program of King Unas
- Symbolism of the Pyramid texts
- The Ascension Myth in the Pyramid Texts
- Mythology and Symbolism in the Texts
- Funerary Contexts and Rituals in the Pyramid Texts
- Impact of Unas’ Program on Later Pyramids
- Conclusion
- FAQs
The Pyramid Texts are the oldest known religious writings to date. They encapsulate the funerary beliefs of the Ancient Egyptians during the Old Kingdom, over 4,500 years ago (or earlier, considering these beliefs predated their transcription onto stone).
Initially inscribed exclusively in the pyramids of kings, these texts later appeared in the pyramids of queens toward the end of the Old Kingdom. Some formulas reappear in the Middle Kingdom as part of the “Coffin Texts“.
In pyramids containing these inscriptions, the texts are carved in columns on the walls of corridors, antechambers, and burial chambers.
The walls surrounding the sarcophagus usually bear no inscriptions, while the ceilings are adorned with stars. The latest pyramid partially inscribed with Pyramid Texts is that of Reherichefnakht, “Chief of Sealers,” located near the pyramid of Pepi I.
Discovery of Pyramid Texts
In 1881, Gaston Maspero discovered the Pyramid Texts in the Pyramid of Unas.
Auguste Mariette, who had assumed that pyramids—like those at Giza—were devoid of inscriptions, was proven wrong when Maspero’s work uncovered these writings.
Subsequent excavations and research on the pyramid of Pepi I by the French Archaeological Mission of Saqqara revealed new chapters of previously known texts (TP 1001-1081). Similar findings occurred in the pyramids of Teti and Merenre.
Remains of the Pyramid of Unas
Since 2002, the clearing of the Pyramid of Ankhesenpepi II has revealed approximately 1,100 fragments comprising nearly 300 formulas, some of which are entirely new.
The German Egyptologist Kurt Heinrich Sethe was the first to compile the Pyramid Texts. However, it is essential to remember that the Pyramid Texts remain an open corpus, as not all sources have been fully uncovered.
A definitive evaluation of their extent remains impossible. Furthermore, the ancient Egyptians did not view these texts as immutable, as they were transcribed and adapted in the “Coffin Texts” and the “Book of the Dead.”
When the Dutch Egyptologist Adriaan de Buck compiled the coffin Texts, he deliberately excluded chapters already included in the Pyramid Texts corpus. Despite this philological effort, the study of Middle Kingdom funerary literature created an unintentional distortion, leading to the perception that the Pyramid Texts’ use ended with the Old Kingdom.
In reality, their tradition continued through the Roman occupation of Egypt, accompanying the deceased for over 25 centuries.
Limited Presence of Pyramid Texts
Not all Egyptian pyramids contain Pyramid Texts. Only about ten monuments feature these inscriptions on the walls of their subterranean chambers. Royal funerary complexes of the 4th Dynasty, such as those of Snefru, Khufu, Khafre, or Menkaure, lack inscriptions or exhibit minimal decoration.
The last king of the 5th Dynasty, Unas, introduced the innovative practice of engraving hieroglyphic and funerary texts on the inner walls of his pyramid’s burial chamber, antechamber, and connecting corridors.
The successors of Unas adopted this decorative program, incorporating these liturgical and magical texts in their pyramids. Texts have been found in the pyramids of 6th Dynasty kings such as Teti, Pepi I, Merenre I, and Pepi II.
Additionally, inscriptions were discovered in the pyramid of Qakare Ibi, a relatively lesser-known ruler from the 7th and 8th Dynasties.
Expansion Beyond Royal Use
From the 6th Dynasty onwards, Pyramid Texts began appearing in the pyramids of queens. Texts belonging to the wives of Pepi II, including Queens Neith, Iput II, and Udjebten, have been documented.
The most recent discovery pertains to the Pyramid of Ankhesenpepi II, who was successively the wife of Pepi I and Merenre I.
By the Middle and New Kingdoms, notable individuals also utilized these texts, inscribing them on the walls of their tombs, sarcophagi, and canopic jars.
Examples include mastabas from prominent figures such as Neha, Imhotep, Senusretankh, Siese, Horhotep, and Amenemhat. In the 25th and 27th Dynasties, passages from the Pyramid Texts were still incorporated into the tombs of notables such as Radjaa, Padiamenopet, and Hor.
Significant Monuments Featuring Pyramid Texts
- The Mastaba of Neha (Middle Kingdom):
Excavated in 1907 by the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology, the funerary chamber features texts painted in black on a light-yellow background. Some chapters are recognized as part of the Pyramid Texts corpus, while others exhibit unique variations. - The Mastaba of Imhotep (12th Dynasty):
Located in Lisht, this unfinished funerary chamber was discovered in 1914 by a team from the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The inscriptions, carved and painted on limestone slabs, were further studied in 1988. - The Tomb of Senusretankh (12th Dynasty):
Situated near the Pyramid of Senusret in Lisht, this tomb’s burial chamber and corridor walls display extensive Pyramid Texts inscriptions. - The Mastaba of Siese (12th Dynasty):
Located in Dahshur near Amenemhat II’s necropolis, the inscriptions, though limited, were published in 1903. - The Tomb of Horhotep (11th Dynasty):
Discovered by Gaston Maspero in 1883, this tomb is carved into a rock face at Deir el-Bahari.
The Role of Pyramid Texts in Royal Funerary Contexts
Unas, the first king to inscribe texts in his pyramid, likely borrowed these formulas from pre-existing religious archives, as evidenced by the substitution of generic terms like “king” with his name. The linguistic style in Unas’ tomb also suggests these texts predate the 6th Dynasty.
In Unas’ Pyramid, depictions of practices such as brick tomb construction, burial in the ground, and even cannibalism (chapters 273-274) were recorded:
“Unas eats men and feeds on gods. … It is Khonsu, the knife-wielder, who will dismember them for Unas, and Chesmu who will cook a portion of them for the evening meal!”
Inscription Methods and Corrections in Unas’ Pyramid
Before the hieroglyphs were carved into the walls, the texts were initially painted in black. It is believed that the original texts were transcribed from horizontal hieratic script on papyrus.
Evidence of this includes hieroglyphic errors likely arising from misinterpretation during the transition from hieratic to hieroglyphic writing.
One example of this transition is the replacement of the generic term “nesou” (“king”) with the specific cartouche of Unas.
In two instances, the cartouche of Unas was engraved over the term “nesou” on the north wall of the passage leading from the burial chamber to the antechamber.
After the hieroglyphic texts were carved, a scribe reviewed the inscriptions and marked corrections with black or red paint. In the Pyramid of Unas, 163 corrections were identified: 74 in the burial chamber and 79 in the antechamber.
These changes ranged from altering individual hieroglyphs to revising entire passages. However, in two cases, corrections written in ink were not implemented by the sculptors.
Corrections included adding, removing, or substituting hieroglyphs, inserting or omitting words or phrases, and changing the text to align with ritual practices. In some cases, old hieroglyphs were covered with plaster and new ones engraved over them.
Once the corrections were complete, the hieroglyphs were painted dark blue (in the case of Unas’ pyramid) or green (in the pyramids of Pepi I and Merenre). However, such practices were not observed in the Pyramid of Teti.
Interpretation of Text Layouts
Egyptologists have explored the spatial arrangement of texts in relation to their content. Some researchers suggest that the layout symbolically aligns with regions of the mythical geography.
In the late 1980s, James Peter Allen proposed that the Pyramid Texts should be read starting from the sarcophagus outward. He associated the burial chamber with the Duat (the underworld), the antechamber with the Akhet (the horizon), and the corridor with the celestial paths.
In contrast, in 2009, Harold M. Hays challenged this interpretation, arguing that the subterranean chambers of pyramids do not represent distinct mythical regions.
While the Duat is mentioned in the burial chamber, the Akhet also appears there, and both terms are found in the antechamber. Additionally, the location of texts varies between pyramids, suggesting that text placement was influenced more by architectural tradition than by symbolic meaning.
Hays built upon an earlier argument by Jan Assmann (1999), emphasizing that the Pyramid Texts should be studied as part of their liturgical context.
The texts consist of ritualistic formulas, where a ritualist speaks to or about the king. Understanding a single formula requires examining its connection to the surrounding ones, as they collectively form a coherent ritual framework.
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The Decorative Program of King Unas
Unas (5th Dynasty) was the first Egyptian ruler to decorate the subterranean walls of his pyramid with hieroglyphic texts. The inscriptions, engraved on limestone and enhanced with blue pigment, form the oldest examples of the Pyramid Texts.
The burial chamber and the antechamber are covered with vaulted ceilings decorated with a starry sky, symbolizing the heavens.
The grauwacke sarcophagus, uninscribed, is placed against the western wall of the burial chamber. The walls at the back of the chamber mimic a palace façade, mostly devoid of inscriptions except for the upper pediment, where formulas for repelling serpents are engraved.
The north wall of the burial chamber contains a long sequence of offerings (chapters 23–212), arranged in three registers of fifty-five columns each. These offerings include wine, poultry, milk, and grains, among others. This sequence continues on the north wall of the passage leading to the antechamber.
The south wall features glorification formulas (chapters 213–219) designed to integrate the king into the cosmic order with the sun and stars. This series extends to the eastern wall (the entrance to the burial chamber) and the south wall of the passage.
The texts on the walls of the antechamber focus on the king’s ascension and journey to the heavens (chapters 247–312). After being presented to the gods, the king is placed above them, signifying his supreme power.
The room with three niches remains undecorated, with a flat ceiling, unlike the other chambers.
The decorative program initiated by Unas was adopted and expanded by his successors in the 6th Dynasty, some of whom increased the number of formulas to 759.
Symbolism of the Pyramid texts
The Pyramid Texts often draw symbolic parallels between architectural elements and celestial or divine concepts. For instance, during the New Kingdom’s Ramesside period, tombs were associated with the Duat (the underworld). This concept was already present during the Old Kingdom.
A passage from the Pyramid Texts in the antechamber of Neferkare Pepi metaphorically associates the funerary monument with the goddess Nut, the personification of the sky:
“If you have been given to your mother Nut in her name of sarcophagus, it is because she has gathered you in her name of coffin. If you are drawn upward by her, it is in her name of tomb!”
In the burial chamber of the same pyramid, another passage compares the deceased king and his pyramid to Osiris, Nut’s son:
“O Horus, it is Osiris who is this Neferkare, it is Osiris who is this pyramid of Neferkare and this construction that is his! Go to him! Do not turn away from him in his name of Pyramid.”
The Ascension Myth in the Pyramid Texts
Certain formulas in the Pyramid Texts are isolated, while others form sequences. Egyptologist Hartwig Altenmüller identified seven groups of texts related to the funerary ritual. The “Suite A,” also called the “Grand Departure,” is the most prominent sequence, used from the Old Kingdom to the Late Period.
This sequence includes formulas 213–219, often followed by formulas 220–222 and 245–246.
In the Old Kingdom, the complete sequence already appears on the south wall of Unas’ burial chamber. His successors of the 6th Dynasty, as well as queens and the 8th Dynasty king Qakare Ibi, incorporated this sequence with additions or modifications depending on the available decorative space.
The “Grand Departure” begins with a declaration that vehemently denies the king’s death. The king’s body is proclaimed eternal, as all his limbs are compared to those of Atum, the creator god. Only his face is compared to Anubis, the jackal-headed god of preservation. For instance, in the Pyramid Texts of Pepi II, chapter 213 states:
“Ah Neferkare, you cannot depart dead since you departed alive.
Your arm is like that of Atum,
Your two shoulders are like those of Atum,
Your belly is like that of Atum,
Your back is like that of Atum,
Your chest is like that of Atum,
Your two legs are like those of Atum,
And your face is like that of Anubis.”
Mythology and Symbolism in the Texts
The symbolic association of the pyramid with celestial elements persisted throughout Egyptian history. In the Pyramid Texts of Pepi I and Pepi II, the pyramid is compared to the sky goddess Nut and Osiris, her son.
These associations emphasize the eternal journey of the king, who ascends to the heavens as a divine being.
For example, the burial chamber of Neferkare Pepi contains the following passage:
“O Horus, it is Osiris who is this Neferkare, it is Osiris who is this pyramid of Neferkare, and this construction that is his! Go to him! Do not turn away from him in his name of Pyramid.”
This same text also appears in the burial chamber of Merenre:
“Ah Horus, it is Osiris who is this Merenre! It is Osiris who is this construction! It is Osiris who is this pyramid! Go to Merenre! Do not turn away from him in his name of Pyramid.”
Funerary Contexts and Rituals in the Pyramid Texts
The texts inscribed within the burial chambers are more than static inscriptions; they represent the king’s voice speaking eternally. The texts include invocations for embalming the body, placing the mummy into the tomb and sarcophagus, consecrating the tomb, and performing daily or festival cult sacrifices.
Within the burial chamber, texts surrounding the sarcophagus convey the ritualist’s voice addressing the king. Elsewhere, the king himself speaks. Four primary ritual contexts emerge from these inscriptions:
- The embalming and preparation of the body.
- The placement of the mummy in the tomb and sarcophagus.
- The consecration of the tomb space.
- Cultic sacrifices performed daily or during festivals.
Impact of Unas’ Program on Later Pyramids
The decorative program of Unas’ pyramid, which combined hieroglyphic inscriptions with religious and ritualistic formulas, was groundbreaking for its time. It laid the foundation for subsequent royal funerary practices in the 6th Dynasty.
For example, the pyramids of Pepi I and Pepi II are notable for their extensive text coverage. The Pyramid of Pepi II contains nearly 800 inscriptions, reflecting the evolution of the Pyramid Texts from Unas’ original program.
Later adaptations of the Pyramid Texts also reveal a growing emphasis on personal immortality and the integration of the deceased into cosmic and divine cycles. As new kings and queens modified the texts to suit their reigns, the corpus of Pyramid Texts expanded, incorporating elements from the “Coffin Texts” and influencing later works like the “Book of the Dead.”.
Conclusion
The Pyramid Texts represent one of the most significant collections of religious literature in ancient Egyptian history. From their inception in the pyramid of Unas during the 5th Dynasty to their adaptations in the Middle and New Kingdoms, these texts provide a unique window into the beliefs, rituals, and cosmology of Ancient Egypt.
They not only served to guide the deceased king into the afterlife but also reflected the evolving relationship between the divine and the mortal in Egyptian culture.
Here are five unique FAQs related to the Pyramid Texts:
FAQs
1. What are the Pyramid Texts?
The Pyramid Texts are a collection of ancient Egyptian religious inscriptions found inside the pyramids of Old Kingdom pharaohs. They contain spells, hymns, and prayers designed to guide the deceased ruler into the afterlife.
2. Where were the Pyramid Texts discovered?
The Pyramid Texts were first discovered in the Pyramid of Unas, the last pharaoh of Egypt’s Fifth Dynasty, in the Saqqara necropolis. Since then, they have been found in several pyramids of other rulers from the Sixth Dynasty.
3. What is the significance of the Pyramid Texts?
These texts are the oldest known religious writings in the world and provide critical insights into early Egyptian beliefs about the afterlife, divine beings, and funerary practices. They also influenced later Egyptian religious texts, such as the Coffin Texts and the Book of the Dead.
4. How do the Pyramid Texts differ from the Book of the Dead?
The Pyramid Texts were exclusively reserved for pharaohs and inscribed inside their tombs, while the Book of the Dead was a later development, written on papyrus and available to non-royal individuals as well. The Coffin Texts served as a transitional phase between these two religious writings.
5. Can I read the Pyramid Texts today?
Yes! Many translations of the Pyramid Texts are available online and in print. Scholars such as Samuel A. B. Mercer, Raymond O. Faulkner, and James P. Allen have translated them into English, providing valuable resources for those interested in Egyptology and ancient religion.
