- Key Gods and Spirits in Egyptian Mythology and Funerary Beliefs
- Nut and the Female Divine Protection of the Deceased
- Thoth and the Male Deities of the Final Judgment in the Egyptian Book of the dead
- Anubis in the Egyptian Book of the Dead
- Egyptian Book of the Dead | From Gods to Demons
- Conclusion
Key Gods and Spirits in Egyptian Mythology and Funerary Beliefs
The Egyptian Book of the Dead features a vast array of supernatural beings, each with a unique role in guiding the deceased through the afterlife. The sheer number and diversity of these entities, including gods, spirits, and demons, can be overwhelming.
While some gods, like Re and Osiris, are frequently mentioned, the importance of lesser-known spirits should not be overlooked. Every god or spirit, no matter how minor, plays a vital part in the deceased’s journey toward divine assimilation or protection from harm.
Unlike the hierarchical structure found in temples, where there is a clear distinction between major gods and lesser deities, the supernatural world of the Egyptian Book of the Dead is more fluid and complex.
It presents a harmonious cooperation of divine, demonic, and spiritual entities, each contributing in different ways to the deceased’s transformation into an akh, or a blessed, divine being. This transformation is facilitated by the various stages and trials the deceased must face, many of which are challenging or even dangerous.
Among the most notable group of spells in the Egyptian Book of the Dead are the “transformation spells” (spells 76–88), which focus on the deceased’s desire to become different divine beings.
In these spells, the soul may wish to transform into a lotus flower, a god, a snake, a crocodile, or a bird.
The most popular transformations are into divine birds, such as falcons or herons, symbolizing freedom and movement within the netherworld.
The recurring word ḫpr, meaning “becoming,” is central to these spells, reflecting the process of spiritual transformation. This word is associated with the hieroglyph of the scarab, symbolizing the sun god Khepri, who undergoes a cycle of transformation each day.
These spells, closely related to the solar journey, often occur in groups of twelve, corresponding to the twelve hours of the day and night, just as the sun god traverses the sky in his daily journey.
In the Book of the Dead, the deceased is referred to as “the Osiris N,” identifying them as a divine being from the very beginning of their journey in the afterlife. Osiris, the god of death and resurrection, plays a central role throughout the text. His function is often combined with that of Re, the sun god, who appears in different forms such as Atum (the creator) and Khepri (the god of the rising sun).
Together, they are often depicted as the syncretized form of Osiris-Re, the “great god.” Alongside them, other gods like Amun-Re, Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, and Re-Horakhty, as well as deities from the Heliopolitan creation myth such as Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Seth, Isis, Nephthys, and Horus, are also frequently mentioned.
The members of the ennead, the nine gods of creation, play key roles in the mythological cycle that underpins the Egyptian Book of the Dead, particularly in relation to the story of Osiris’s death and resurrection, as well as Horus’s role as the living king of Egypt.
These deities are invoked throughout the spells and vignettes, reinforcing the themes of divine protection, transformation, and resurrection. The Egyptian Book of the Dead paints a picture of an intricate, dynamic spiritual world where gods and beings work together to ensure the deceased’s safe passage into the afterlife, guiding them toward ultimate divine assimilation.
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Nut and the Female Divine Protection of the Deceased
The cosmic origins of the primordial gods significantly influenced their roles in the Egyptian Book of the Dead. As the goddess of the sky, Nut is depicted as the mother of the deceased, enveloping them in a celestial netherworld and offering protection as they journey toward the heavens.
In spell 136A, it is stated that the deceased “sails on it (the boat) to Nut.” She is often invoked as the mother of the sun god, symbolizing that the deceased, like the sun god, is born from her womb and seeks to become one with this divine entity.
One of the most beautiful and enduring images of Nut is her body arched over the reclining form of Geb, the earth god, while supported by Shu, the air god. This scene appears in various funerary papyri, including one of the longest scrolls of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, the so-called Papyrus Greenfield.
Nut’s role as the mother of both the sun god and the deceased is highlighted in one of the transformation spells (spell 79), which describes the deceased as moving with the procession of gods to “the body of the lower sky” in the company of the sun god, Atum. It is said:
he whom his mother Nut has borne. (Quirke 2013, p. 189).
In spell 175, which references the myth of humanity’s rebellion against the old sun god, mankind is referred to as “the children of Nut.” Furthermore, spell 59, common in Late and Ptolemaic Period papyri, is called “a spell for breathing air and having power over water.”
Its vignette depicts the “sycamore of Nut,” which provides both water and air to the deceased. The association of Nut with a tree is a recurring motif in the Egyptian Book of the Dead. This tree-goddess symbolism is also shared by other female deities such as Isis, Hathor, and the Goddess of the West, who are often depicted with trees.
The spells mentioned, 175 and 59, have no earlier sources but are found in temple rituals. Spell 79 and other texts referencing Nut and the gods of the ennead are newer versions of older texts aimed at protecting the deceased king.
These spells are derived from the Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom or re-editions of the Coffin Texts, which were primarily used on coffins of the elite during the Middle Kingdom.
The role of the primordial gods in relation to the deceased remains largely unchanged. The key difference is that, whereas these texts were originally intended for the king or a select elite, in later periods a wider range of individuals, especially from priestly families and scribes, could use the Book of the Dead to seek the favor of these gods and achieve divine assimilation.
One notable spell, spell 134, was widely used from the Eighteenth Dynasty through the Ptolemaic Period. This spell, aimed at “glorifying an akh-spirit,” includes instructions for depicting the gods of the Ennead in a solar boat, a motif that is also seen on pottery bowls used in temple offerings.
The journey of the deceased with the gods in the solar boat is a central theme in both texts and vignettes of the Egyptian Book of the Dead.
Another important female deity in this context is Hathor. Like Nut, she can be part of the solar crew and is connected to the tree-goddess symbolism. Hathor, known as the goddess of sensuality, love, and female creative power, takes on a more nuanced role in the funerary context of the Egyptian Book of the Dead.
By the end of the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, it became common to refer to deceased women as “Hathor N,” showing her growing significance as the female counterpart of Osiris. Hathor’s role as a funerary deity became more prominent starting in the New Kingdom, with the celestial cow of Hathor frequently depicted in the Egyptian Book of the Dead.
This image symbolizes her role as a protector of the tomb and a welcoming figure for the deceased in the afterlife. Hathor is often shown as a cow or as a woman with cow horns and a solar disk on her head, a depiction found in the vignettes of spell 186 on Theban papyri from the Ramesside period.
The motif of Hathor as the “mistress of the west” and her connection with the wedjat-eye, a symbol of apotropaic power associated with the furious eye of Re or the eye of Horus, is another key element.
This theme is also present in amulets depicting female deities like Sekhmet, Neith, Isis, and Tefnut, who are linked to the solar power and protective qualities of the wedjat-eye, as described in spell 163 of the Egyptian Book of the Dead. The vignette of spell 163, which is common in late papyri, illustrates two winged wedjat-eyes.
Other divine cows, closely linked to Hathor and other female cow goddesses in mythology, also appear in the Egyptian Book of the Dead. The vignette of spell 148 is particularly representative, as it illustrates the seven celestial cows and their bull, who provide offerings and rebirth for the deceased.
These cows also embody the “seven Hathors,” deities associated with fate, known for their ability to predict the future of newborns. Additionally, a heavenly cow adorned with a sun disk and Hathor plumes appears in the final vignette of Papyrus Milbank.
Thoth and the Male Deities of the Final Judgment in the Egyptian Book of the dead
Unlike female deities, who often share interchangeable roles as protectors and nurturers of the deceased, male deities in the Egyptian Book of the Dead are assigned distinct and specific roles.
One of the most iconic representations of male gods is found in the vignette of spell 125, which depicts the final judgment. This scene, a central motif in New Kingdom coffins and later Books of Breathing (Chapter 12 and Cat. No. 17), features prominent male deities such as Thoth, Anubis, and the four sons of Horus.
The concept of judgment and trials for the deceased before divine tribunals (djadjat) is deeply rooted in Egyptian mythology. It draws upon the justification of Osiris (Stadler 2009) and the mythical Contending of Horus and Seth.
The most iconic element of the judgment is the weighing of the deceased’s heart against the feather of Maat, the symbol of cosmic order and justice personified as a goddess. This scene often includes Osiris (or occasionally Re) presiding, while other gods observe this pivotal moment.
The image of the judgment is frequently depicted on coffins, mummy bandages, and shrouds. A rare temple depiction of this scene from the Ptolemaic Period is also found in Deir el-Medina (Thebes).
In this vignette, Thoth, the god of writing and wisdom, plays a critical role as the recorder of the verdict. Depicted as an ibis-headed god with a human body, he is shown performing his scribal duties.
The anthropomorphic representation of gods, common in the Book of the Dead and other ritual depictions, emphasizes their connection to humanity and their ability to interact with the deceased. Similarly, Anubis, the jackal-headed god, oversees the scales, sometimes accompanied by Horus.
Thoth is also depicted in his theriomorphic form as a baboon, overseeing the scales in a less active role. For instance, in the Papyrus Ryerson, two small decorative scales overseen by a baboon frame the architecture of the “Hall of the Two Truths,” the location of the judgment.
This integration of both anthropomorphic and animal forms highlights the gods’ multifaceted roles in the afterlife, balancing divine authority with accessibility to the human soul.
Similar to Thoth and Anubis, the major gods featured in the Book of the Dead often have multiple manifestations, typically in animal forms or as hybrids with human bodies and animal heads.
These gods can assume various roles depending on the context. For example, both Thoth and Anubis appear in several spells beyond spell 125, and their characteristics adapt to the specific role they are fulfilling in each instance .
Anubis in the Egyptian Book of the Dead
Anubis, the jackal-headed god, is portrayed in different roles across spells. In spell 151, for instance, he takes on the role of embalmer, and the vignette of this spell, which shows him overseeing the funerary bed where the deceased’s coffin or mummy lies, is a popular motif found on funerary objects and tomb decorations.
Anubis, one of the oldest funerary gods, has long been a protector of royal burials, dating back to the early Pharaonic Period. He shared the important title “foremost of the westerners” (Khentyimentyu) with Osiris.
It is important to differentiate Anubis from another ancient funerary god, Wepwawet, who was known as “the opener of the ways.” In the vignette of spell 138, which is a “spell for entering Abydos and following Osiris,” both Anubis and Wepwawet are depicted as jackals on a stand.
The Book of the Dead also features other jackal-headed gods and demonic beings, reflecting the widespread association of canids, particularly jackals, with funerary deities in ancient Egyptian belief.
From the brief overview of the deities mentioned and depicted in the Book of the Dead, several key features of the divine world in the ancient Egyptian afterlife emerge. Firstly, it is evident that the main gods of the Egyptian pantheon, when acting in a funerary context like the Book of the Dead, evoke the mythological narratives in which they are involved.
Additionally, these deities typically have a protective and benevolent role toward the deceased, who seeks both physical and spiritual empowerment to become an akh, a divine, transfigured spirit. Lastly, their iconography is relatively fixed and traditional, with Thoth represented as an ibis or baboon, Anubis as a jackal, Sobek as a crocodile, and Ptah as an anthropomorphic figure.
In the netherworld, there are also numerous supernatural beings who surround these major deities, frequently depicted and mentioned in the spells. These liminal beings, often with jackal or crocodile heads, are sometimes anonymous and appear alongside the main gods, making it difficult to distinguish them unless their names are specified in the captions.
This is where the category of the “great gods” blends with that of “minor gods,” “demons,” or “genii,” which represent different classes of supernatural beings.
One example is the 42 judges of spell 125, who “hear cases” and in front of whom the deceased recites the “negative confession.” These judges are also shown in the vignette. Some of them, such as Nefertem from Memphis, are known from other religious texts and had their own cults, while others have epithets connected to the major gods, like “nosey” of Thoth’s city, Hermopolis, and “white of teeth” for Sobek.
Additionally, primordial gods like Re, Atum, Shu, and Tefnut are sometimes depicted as judges in the vignettes, as seen in the Papyrus of Ani. However, many of the judges have specific, otherwise unattested names that are linked to different locations and associated with particular sins that the deceased must avoid.
Their names are often ominous—such as “far-strider,” “swallower of shades,” or “dangerous one”—and their nature could be considered “demonic” if we accept the concept of demons existing alongside the gods in Egyptian belief.
Egyptian Book of the Dead | From Gods to Demons
In the ancient Egyptian language, the term netjer (represented by the hieroglyph ö, likely depicting a cult flag or wrapped fetish) is the general word for the divine and is typically translated as “god”.
The symbol of a falcon on a pole or the hieroglyph of the seated god K often serves as determinatives in divine names.
Netjer refers to the main gods of the Egyptian pantheon—those found in myths, worshiped in temples, and associated with cult centers. However, alongside these gods, there exists a wide range of supernatural beings in the Book of the Dead who do not have temples or mythological narratives and are not worshipped in official cults.
These entities are named and described according to their appearance, function, or the region of the netherworld they inhabit.
While these beings fall under the broader category of netjer due to their supernatural nature, they differ from the main gods in that they do not possess universal power.
Their abilities are limited to specific regions and roles, often centered around particular locations in the afterlife. For example, Amemet, the “devourer of the dead,” is a hybrid creature with the head of a crocodile, the upper body of a lion, and the lower body of a hippopotamus. She is a constant presence in the final judgment, ready to consume those whose hearts are not favorably judged.
Her divine power is limited to retribution in the afterlife. Similarly, the hybrid guardians of the gates and doors to the netherworld, described in popular spells (144–147), are more accurately considered guardian demons rather than gods. Their power is confined to the specific areas they guard, where the deceased must interact with them to gain passage through the gates (Cat. No. 17).
The popularity of these guardian demons was so widespread that they appear not only on papyri but also on coffins, tomb walls, and even temples. In the latter, their role shifts from guardians of the afterlife to genii of the temple, though their fundamental function remains unchanged: they cannot leave the places they guard.
The guardians’ protective role is particularly associated with the vigil of Osiris during the night hours, when the god’s mummified body requires safeguarding before its rebirth. This explains why spells invoking guardian demons, along with their accompanying vignettes, are commonly found on coffins to protect the deceased’s mummy.
The guardians typically have a hybrid appearance, with animal heads and human bodies. The heads represent a variety of sacred animals, including reptiles, birds, and mammals, such as crocodiles, snakes, dogs, rams, bulls, monkeys, and falcons, to name a few.
They are often depicted sitting or standing alone, in pairs, or as triads, holding various attributes. These can range from vegetal elements resembling barley—likely a symbol of fertility—to knives or upright lizards, which also represent the hieroglyph for “many”.
Their iconography can sometimes be confusing, as it resembles that of certain major gods, such as the dog-headed Anubis or the crocodile-headed Sobek. What sets them apart are their specific names, although some of these names are also used as epithets for the gods. For example, “the one with many forms” is an epithet for Amun-Re, and “the one with many faces” is similarly applied to Osiris and Re in other religious texts.
In contrast to the guardians, there are groups of demons that are rarely depicted and are primarily mentioned by collective names such as the “murderers,” the “messengers,” and the “wanderers.” These names reflect their terrifying roles as punishing agents sent by vengeful deities or to serve major gods like Osiris, Sekhmet, or Re.
These demons also feature prominently in spells used for everyday magic, where they are particularly feared as disease-bringers and as messengers of Sekhmet. This connection highlights how the supernatural world and belief in demons, as portrayed in the Book of the Dead, are closely linked to the world of the living, as well as to the daily magical practices carried out by local magicians and priests in temples to protect and heal the living from misfortune.
The spells and vignettes aimed at protecting against dangerous demonic animals in the Book of the Dead should also be understood in this context. Spells 31 to 42 are intended to repel hostile beings and forces, demonizing certain animals—such as snakes, crocodiles, pigs, and insects—that were also warded off in everyday magic spells (Cat. Nos. 30–31).
Apophis: The Embodiment of Chaos in the Egyptian Book of the Dead
Among these, the anti-snake spells are the most numerous (spells 33–35, 37, and 39), and they appear in the oldest magical texts, such as the Pyramid Texts from the third millennium BC, and remained widespread throughout the New Kingdom and beyond. These animals, especially snakes, are considered “demonic” because they do not belong to the earthly realm but to the diverse divine category of the netherworld’s inhabitants.
They are typically associated with the god of chaos, Seth, such as the pig in some versions of spell 36 and the donkey in spell 40, or with the giant serpent Apophis, as seen in spells 33–35.
Apophis, mentioned particularly in spell 39 of the Book of the Dead alongside its earlier version of Rerek (Cat. No. 31), is also featured in spell 7, where his “spine” is likened to the sandbank that halts the sun god’s boat during its journey.
Apophis cannot be classified as either a god or a demon but rather as an archetypal enemy of creation, comparable to primordial monsters, dragons, and serpents representing chaos, as seen in other religious traditions, such as the Babylonian Tiamat or the Hebrew Bible’s Leviathan.
Apophis is also depicted in the vignette of spell 17, bound by a knife held by Atum, who takes the form of a wild cat (Fig. 3.6), or while attacking the solar boat in the scenes of the so-called Book of the Hidden Chamber or Amduat.
The Amduat illustrates the sun god’s journey through the twelve hours of the night in the subterranean netherworld, aiming to unite with the body of Osiris. A series of divine and demonic figures accompany the sun god, including snake-like creatures. Some of these beings are benevolent, linked to deities (Cat. No. 12), while others serve as punishers of the damned souls.
Elements of the Amduat, which were originally used to decorate royal tombs during the New Kingdom, appear later in the Book of the Dead and other funerary papyri from the Third Intermediate Period, accompanying the deceased in their coffin.
The Akhu: Transfigured Spirits and Ghosts
Additionally, the Book of the Dead provides insight into the concept of “spirit” or “ghost,” which refers to beings in the supernatural realm. Unlike gods and demons, these entities are not independent but represent the transformed state of the living after death.
The term used in ancient Egyptian for these beings is Ꜣḫ, “akh,” symbolized by the hieroglyph of the crested ibis (o). The root of this word has a range of meanings, from “being effective” to “to transfigure” and “to glorify.”.
A closely related root, ı͗Ꜣḫ, meaning “to be bright,” signifies the connection between blessed spirits and the sun. Spells 130–136 of the Book of the Dead, all focused on the solar boat, are designed for “making an akh excellent,” in alignment with the sun god.
However, in other contexts, the akhu (plural of akh) can be understood as spirits inhabiting the netherworld or even as demonic beings under the control of a primary deity.
An example of this is found in spell 194 of the Book of the Dead, a unique spell attested in a few papyri from the Ramesside and Third Intermediate Period. In this spell, Anubis is depicted leading seven akhu, each holding snake-wands.
These are said to belong to the tribunal and are also mentioned in spell 17. These demonic akhu may also be seen as ghostly manifestations, as the term is used to describe spirits that appear on earth, particularly in several Ramesside spells for daily and funerary magic.
The term “ba” (bꜢ), symbolized by the hieroglyph of the jabiru bird (t), denotes the transformed status of the deceased in the afterlife, particularly in terms of freedom of movement, similar to the concept of akh.
In its plural form, bau, it refers to supernatural forces. Spells 107–116 of the Book of the Dead focus on understanding the bau of different locations in the netherworld, often depicted as triads of divine figures, likely local gods. The bau of the gods also appear in daily magic spells, where they are considered dangerous forces.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the realm of gods, spirits, and demons in the Book of the Dead offers a clear reflection of how the ancient Egyptians perceived and engaged with divine entities in their cultural and religious practices.
They envisioned an afterlife where encounters with the supernatural were not extraordinary but commonplace. These interactions were managed through the spells and vignettes of the Book of the Dead, along with other magical items placed in tombs, coffins, and with the mummies of the deceased.
